Aminet 6/Aminet 6 - June 1995.iso/Aminet/docs/misc/wfbook93_texi.lha/texi/7.data

Text File | 1995-03-27 | 11.8 KB | 298 lines

@node Geography (Antarctica)
@section Geography (Antarctica)

@display

Location:
  continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Map references:
  Antarctic Region
Area:
 total area:
  14 million km2 (est.)
 land area:
  14 million km2 (est.)
 comparative area:
  slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
 note:
  second-smallest continent (after Australia)
Land boundaries:
  none, but see entry on International disputes
Coastline:
  17,968 km
Maritime claims:
  none, but see entry on International Disputes
International disputes:
  Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary below);
  sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France
  (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and
  UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of
  other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve
  the right to do so); no formal claims have been made in the sector between
  90 degrees west and 150 degrees west, where, because of floating ice,
  Antarctica is unapproachable from the sea
Climate:
  severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the
  ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher
  elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher
  temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below
  freezing
Terrain:
  about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
  elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 4,897
  meters high; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land,
  Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on
  McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline,
  and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Natural resources:
  none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum
  and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small,
  uncommercial quantities
Land use:
 arable land:
  0%
 permanent crops:
  0%
 meadows and pastures:
  0%
 forest and woodland:
  0%
 other:
  100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
Irrigated land:
  0 km2



@end display

@node Geography (Antarctica 2. usage)
@section Geography (Antarctica 2. usage)

@display

Environment:
  mostly uninhabitable; katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from
  the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; a
  circumpolar ocean current flows clockwise along the coast as do cyclonic
  storms that form over the ocean; during summer more solar radiation reaches
  the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an
  equivalent period; in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield,
  which protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had
  dwindled to the lowest level ever recorded over Antarctica; active volcanism
  on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic
  activity rare and weak
Note:
  the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent



@end display

@node People (Antarctica)
@section People (Antarctica)

@display

Population:
  no indigenous inhabitants; note - there are seasonally staffed research
  stations
 Summer (January) population:
  over 4,115 total; Argentina 207, Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Chile
  256, China NA, Ecuador NA, Finland 11, France 78, Germany 32, Greenpeace 12,
  India 60, Italy 210, Japan 59, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 264,
  Norway 23, Peru 39, Poland NA, South Africa 79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116,
  Uruguay NA, US 1,666, former USSR 565 (1989-90)
 Winter (July) population:
  over 1,046 total; Argentina 150, Australia 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73, China
  NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace 5, India 1, Japan 38, South Korea 14,
  NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA, US 225, former USSR
  313 (1989-90)
 Year-round stations:
  42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2, Finland 1,
  France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 2, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, South
  Africa 3, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3, former USSR 6 (1990-91)
 Summer only stations:
   over 38 total; Argentina 7, Australia 3, Chile 5, Germany 3, India 1,
  Italy 1, Japan 4, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Sweden 2,
  UK 1, US numerous, former USSR 5 (1989-90); note - the disintegration of the
  former USSR has placed the status and future of its Antarctic facilities in
  doubt; stations may be subject to closings at any time because of ongoing
  economic difficulties



@end display

@node Government (Antarctica)
@section Government (Antarctica)

@display

Names:
 conventional long form:
  none
 conventional short form:
  Antarctica
Digraph:
  AY
Type:
 Antarctic Treaty Summary:
  The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23
  June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica.
  Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings--the 17th
  Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Venice in November 1992.
  Currently, there are 41 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 15
  acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim
  portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19
  nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims
  have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of
  others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted
  to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country
  was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are--Argentina,
  Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant
  consultative nations are--Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador
  (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan,
  South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South
  Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia.
  Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses,
  are--Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba
  (1984), Czechoslovakia (1962), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala
  (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania
  (1971), Switzerland (1990), and Ukraine (1992).
 Article 1:
  area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as
  weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be
  used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose
 Article 2:
  freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue
 Article 3:
  free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and
  other international agencies
 Article 4:
  does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new
  claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force
 Article 5:
  prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes
 Article 6:
  includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00
  minutes south
 Article 7:
  treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to
  any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance
  notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must
  be given
 Article 8:
  allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states
 Article 9:
  frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations



@end display

@node Government (Antarctica 2. usage)
@section Government (Antarctica 2. usage)

@display

 Article 10:
  treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that
  are contrary to the treaty
 Article 11:
  disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately,
  by the ICJ
 Article 12, 13, 14:
  deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved
  nations
 Other agreements:
  more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and
  ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for the Conservation of
  Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of
  Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
  Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988
  but was subsequently rejected; in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental
  Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed and awaits ratification; this
  agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through
  five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental
  impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits
  all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research;
  four parties have ratified Protocol as of June 1993
Legal system:
  US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such
  as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries.
  Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic
  Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and
  criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by
  regulation of statute: The taking of native mammals or birds; the
  introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially
  protected or scientific areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and
  the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of
  the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines
  and 1 year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation,
  and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the US
  Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the US to
  Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs,
  Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such
  plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more
  information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National
  Science Foundation, Washington, DC 20550.



@end display

@node Economy (Antarctica)
@section Economy (Antarctica)

@display

Overview:
  No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and
  small-scale tourism, both based abroad.



@end display

@node Communications (Antarctica)
@section Communications (Antarctica)

@display

Ports:
  none; offshore anchorage only at most coastal stations
Airports:
  42 landing facilities at different locations operated by 15 national
  governments party to the Treaty; one additional air facility operated by
  commercial (nongovernmental) tourist organization; helicopter pads at 28 of
  these locations; runways at 10 locations are gravel, sea ice, glacier ice,
  or compacted snow surface suitable for wheeled fixed-wing aircraft; no paved
  runways; 16 locations have snow-surface skiways limited to use by
  ski-equipped planes--11 runways/skiways 1,000 to 3,000 m, 3 runways/skiways
  less than 1,000 m, 5 runways/skiways greater than 3,000 m, and 7 of
  unspecified or variable length; airports generally subject to severe
  restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic
  conditions; airports do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from
  governments required for landing



@end display

@node Defense Forces (Antarctica)
@section Defense Forces (Antarctica)

@display

Note:
  the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as
  the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of
  military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use
  of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other
  peaceful purposes



@end display